The Elements of a Report
A report consists of different components termed as 'elements' of the report. Every report need not contain all the elements. Also, the order in which these elements are organized in a report may differ.
Every organization has its own format of reports. The style guide of the organization provides a good basis for preparation of a report. Also, previous reports that have been successful can form a basis for developing subsequent reports. The reader's needs should be the prime consideration while developing a report.
The various elements of a report are:
Letter of Transmittal
The letter of transmittal is used to convey the purpose and content of the report. It is either attached to the report or placed on top of it. The letter of transmittal serves the following purposes:
· It allows the writer to highlight points he perceives to be of importance or of interest to the reader.
· It allows the writer to point out errors or omissions in the report.
· It allows the writer to attach information that may have been obtained after the preparation of the report.
A letter of transmittal contains:
a) Statement of title, and if necessary, the purpose of report.
b) Statement of who authorized and commissioned the report, and when.
c) The methods used, the principal results, conclusion and recommendations of the project.
d) An acknowledgment of any assistance received in preparing the report.
e) An offer to assist in interpreting the report and undertaking further projects.
Title page The Title page conveys the subject and type of report. It also conveys information about the date of submission of the report, name and position of writer and also the name of principal reader.
Example: A report titled 'Analysis of civic amenities in Karimnagar' clearly conveys that it is an analysis report on civic amenities in Karimnagar.
Abstract
An abstract is a brief technical summary of the report. Abstracts are directed towards readers who have knowledge about the subject. Hence the usage of technical terms in abstracts is common. An abstract helps the reader decide whether it is essential to read the entire report. Several copies of the abstract are made and are made available to the various departments of the organization. Abstracts are attached to the report as well. There are two types of abstracts namely, descriptive and informative abstracts.
· Descriptive Abstracts
The descriptive abstract is also known as topical abstract or table of contents abstract. These give equal weightage to each topic covered in the report.
· Informative Abstracts
Informative abstracts are becoming increasingly popular because these are more detailed than descriptive abstracts. These abstracts define the problem, scope and methods, conclusion and recommendations of the report. This abstract includes the following elements:
· Name of the report, the writer and the department to which the writer belongs
· Problem statement
· Methods/Conclusion and recommendation
Table of Contents
The table of contents helps the reader locate the exact page containing the information he wants. It is the only guide to the report's structure, coverage and pagination. The topics and subtopics listed in the table of contents should be identical to the topics and subtopics as they appear in the report.
To make the table of contents easy to understand different styles like capitalization, underlining, indentation and italics may be used. A well designed table of contents makes it easy to read and remember the structure of the report.
List of Illustrations
List of illustrations is a table of contents for the tables and figures that appear in the report. If the report contains only figures, a list of figures is prepared and if it contains only tables, a list of tables is prepared. If the report contains both tables and figures, both list of figures as well as list of tables is prepared with the list of figures preceding the list of tables in the report. Both these lists together are known as the list of illustrations.
Executive Summary
Executive summary is sometimes referred to as executive overview, management summary or management overview. Executive summary is a brief overview of the report and should not exceed a double spaced single page. Executives seldom require details of the methodology adopted in the report. They are more interested in the benefit to the organization by implementing the recommendations given in the report. Therefore, the executive summary doesn't give much importance to the methodology adopted.
Further, the use of technical terms and advanced concepts should be avoided in the executive summary. The executive summary is given as much importance as the other headings in the table of contents.
Example: If a study is carried out on the use of alternative material to manufacture a product, managers are not interested in knowing the chemical properties of the new material but in knowing how replacing the currently used material with the new material would benefit the company.
The executive summary should include the following information:
Why is the new material better than the currently used material?
What are the costs involved?
How cost-effective is it to use the new material?
What are the limitations involved in switching over to use of the new material?
Glossary & List of Symbols
A glossary is an alphabetical list of definitions. It provides an explanation of the technical terms used in the report for the benefit of readers who are not familiar with these terms. The glossary may be placed at the end of the report just before the appendixes, or it may be placed immediately after the table of contents.
List of symbols is similar to the glossary but instead of defining terms, it defines symbols and what they represent in the report. Similar to the glossary, it may be placed before the appendixes or immediately after the table of contents.
The Appendix
The appendix contains material that is too bulky to be included in the body of the report or that is of interest to only a few readers. The appendix is placed after the body of the report and the back matter (bibliography, glossary, list of symbols). The appendix usually contains graphs, maps and charts, diagrams, computer printouts, test data and texts of supporting documents.
Appendixes are lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, etc.) rather than numbered.
The Text of the report
The text of a report has a structure similar to that of an oral presentation. The text of a report begins with an introduction followed by the body of the report, the summary, conclusions and recommendations and ends with the notes and bibliography.
Introduction: The purpose of the introduction is to
· Relate the report to a problem or assignment
· State the purpose of the report
· Preview the contents and organization of the report
· Establish the tone of the report
The length of the varies with the length of the report and may range from one or two paragraphs to several pages.
The topics covered in the introduction of a report are
Authorization: This section informs when, how and by whom the report was authorized, who wrote the report, and when it was submitted.
Problem/Purpose: This part of the introduction deals with what is to be achieved by writing the report.
Scope: The scope conveys the complexity of the report and indicates the topics that will be covered and the topics that will not be covered in the report.
Background: This part of the introduction explains the factors that have led to the report. By reading the background, readers get to understand how problems had developed and how they had been tackled.
Limitations: These describe the factors affecting the quality of the report and include the constraints faced during preparation of the report. However, limitations should not become justifications for submission of poor-quality reports.
Report Organization: This part of the introduction describes why the report has been organized in a particular manner.
It is not mandatory that all these elements should be included in the introduction. If the abstract is detailed, the introduction may be brief.
The Body of The Report
The body of the report is the major section of the report and contains information that supports the conclusions and recommendations of the report. The amount of detail to be provided in the body depends upon the nature of information, purpose of the report and preferences of the target audience. It is recommended that only relevant details that support the conclusions and recommendations of the report be included in the body and all additional details be presented in tables, charts and appendixes.
The body of the report may include the conclusions if the conclusions logically flow from the evidence presented in the body of the report. However, if the conclusions need to be emphasized, they should be summarized as a separate section of the report.
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
The summary, conclusions and recommendations together form a paragraph or two in a short report whereas, in a long report, these form separate sections.
Summary: The summary comprises of a listing of the key findings in the order in which they appear in the body of the report.
Conclusions: The conclusion gives the writer's interpretation of the findings. In the conclusion, answers are provided to the questions that led to the report.
Recommendations: Recommendations are corrective actions or alternative suggestions given by the writer to tackle the problem.
A deductive or an inductive approach may be adopted to present the summary, conclusions and recommendations. However, most business reports are a combination of both the approaches.
Notes and Bibliography
An acknowledgment of the sources referred to while writing the report and accompanying details are provided in the notes given at the end of the report. The sources are mentioned in the text by numbers and they appear in the same order in the notes.
Bibliography is an alphabetical list of all the sources that have been consulted in the preparation of the report.
The elements of a report and their order vary with the purpose of the report and the needs of the reader. Organization of the elements of the report enhance its clarity and readability and thus make it more effective.
The structure of a report and the organization of the text depends on the purpose of the report, the needs of the readers, and the preferences of the organization with which the writer works.
Different Types of Reports
Reports are business tools that help convey information and assist in decision-making. Reports are classified into various types on the basis of form, direction, functional use, and content of the report.
The various types of reports are:
Formal and Informal Reports
The emphasis in formal reports is on objectivity with a focus on the organization. These reports should be structured carefully. Informal reports are casual, generally prepared as short messages, and are prepared for internal circulation within the organization.
Short or Long Reports
A short report is one that is only a few pages long while a report that runs into several pages is known as a long report. With increase in the number of pages, reports tend to become formal in their characteristics.
Informational Reports
Informational reports convey objective information from one organizational area to another.
Example: Annual reports of companies, monthly sales reports of the marketing division, etc. are examples of informative reports.
Analytical Reports
Analytical reports are reports that present attempts to solve problems.
Example: A feasibility report to study the scope of running the plant on two shifts to meet the delivery deadline is an example of an analytical report.
Vertical or Lateral Report
Reports are classified as vertical or lateral based on the direction in which they move within the organization. Vertical reports move upward or downward in the hierarchy and assist in management control. Lateral reports circulate between various departments at the same organizational level and help in bringing about organizational coordination.
Internal or External Reports
Internal reports are reports that circulate within the organization. External reports are reports that are prepared for distribution outside the organization. These are sent to external agencies like ministries in the government, IT department etc.
Periodic Reports
Periodic reports are generated at regular intervals of time. These reports may be generated on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. Periodic reports are directed upward in the organizational hierarchy and help in management control.
Example: Daily, weekly and monthly sales reports.
Functional Reports
Functional reports provide information pertaining to various functional areas of the organization.
Example: Sales reports, production reports.
Most reports fall into more than one of the above mentioned categories.
Classification on the basis of format
Apart from the above given types of reports, reports can also be classified on the basis of format. Various types of reports on the basis of format are:
Preprinted Form
These reports require the user to fill in information in blank spaces provided for the purpose. These are used for routine information and are most appropriate for conveying numerical information.
Letter
These are a type of report directed to outsiders. They may run into a few pages and make use of personal pronouns. In addition to parts of normal letters, they also contain headings, footnotes, tables and figures.
Memo
These are informal reports that are circulated within the organization. The memo format (Date, To, From, Subject) is used in presenting the information. A memo that runs into more than 10 pages, is called a `memo report'. A memo may have internal headings and make use of visual aids to present the information.
Manuscript
These reports are very long. They may run into a few hundred pages.
Steps in writing a report
The types of reports vary according to the subject matter and the needs of the readers. However, almost all reports consist of the following four steps:
1.Defining the problem and the purpose
2.Identifying and organizing issues for investigation
3.Conducting research
4.Analyzing and interpreting data, drawing conclusions and developing recommendations
All reports need not necessarily have all the steps.
Defining the problem and the purpose:The first step before undertaking a research study is to define the problem and the purpose of the study. It is necessary to know the purpose so as to know the factors that have to be considered to arrive at a solution.
Example:
Problem: Evaluating the cost of a new project.
Purpose: (a) The benefits that would accrue to the organization by undertaking the new project.
(b) The cost and revenue components of the new project.
Zeroing in on the problem: Answering the following questions helps one to precisely define the problem.
· What is it that has to be determined?
· Why is the issue important?
· Who are the people involved in the situation?
· Which is the trouble spot?
· When did the trouble begin?
· How did the situation arise?
Example: What: What is the best way of discharging harmful chemicals by industries?
When: During the current period
Why: For controlling pollution
Where: In industrial areas
Who: Chemical industries
Developing a statement of purpose: After clearly defining a problem statement, a statement of purpose should be drafted. The statement of purpose illustrates the reasons for developing the report. The statement of problem defines what the researcher has to investigate whereas the statement of purpose defines what the report has to accomplish.
It is a general practice to combine both problem statement and the statement of purpose in one single statement. Therefore, sometimes these terms are used interchangeably. These statements can also be presented in an informational or analytical manner. Informational statements present facts, whereas analytical statements present a comparative view.
Example: Informational purpose – Is the compensation package being paid by our company lesser than that of other companies in the industry?
Analytical purpose – Differences between the compensation package of our company and that of other companies, impact on the morale of our employees, and ways to counter the negative consequences?
Identifying issues for investigation:
After having defined the problem statement and the purpose of the study, the areas that need to be investigated to arrive at a solution to the problem have to be identified. This is done by breaking up the 'purpose' into all its related aspects.
After investigation and solving the problem, the information has to be presented to the target audience in a structured form.
Structuring the Report
The structure of the report depends upon the purpose of the study. Reports may follow an informational or an analytical outline. If the purpose of the study is only to provide information that would be used and interpreted by someone else, then the report should have an informational outline. However, if the purpose of the study is to enable you to draw conclusions and make recommendations on the basis of the findings, then the report should follow an analytical outline.
Informational assignments
In informational assignments, the study leads to the development of a factual report in which there is no scope for analysis or interpretation of data. In such reports the information is arranged under various subtopics, each dealing with a specific subject.
The various subtopics that would comprise a factual report are:
1.According to importance
2.According to sequence
3.According to chronology
4.According to spatial orientation
5.According to category
Sometimes, a combination of these sections may be used. It is, however, important that the structure should be able to convey the subject matter to the reader clearly and effectively.
Analytical assignments
Analytical studies involve analysis, drawing conclusions from the analysis and framing recommendations. Analytical studies essentially involve problem-solving. Two of the most common methods used in analytical assignments are:
· Hypothesis: Hypothetical explanations are developed in this method of problem-solving. This method is adopted when the purpose of the report is to discover causes, predict results or to suggest a solution to a problem. Hypothetical explanations are provided for every aspect of the problem and each one of them is proved or disproved by researching the issue.
Example: Problem – Why does our company have heavy turnover at the entry level?
Explanations:
I. Our salaries are too low.
A. What salary do we pay at the entry level?
B. What are the salaries paid by other companies for a similar job?
C. Can salary act as an exit barrier?
II. The work pressure is too high.
A. What are the working hours at the entry level position?
B. Are the deadlines for projects too ambitious?
C. What is the impact on the future growth prospects of the employee if he misses his deadline?
III. Growth prospects are poor in our company.
A. What is the next position above the entry level position?
B. What are the criteria for getting promoted?
· Relative merit: In reports based on relative merit, evaluation of the various available alternatives is made and the most appropriate alternative is chosen. The analysis is structured by focusing on the criteria or needs of the audience.
The structure of the report may vary with the writing situation. There is no standard structure that has to be followed for writing a report. Clarity and logical flow, are the two most important factors to be kept in mind while writing a report. The structure of a report may keep changing as the level of research or investigation progresses. Before beginning the research, a basic structure of the proposed report should be in mind. As the research progresses, this structure can be modified to suit the needs of the study.
Concluding the report
Conclusion, is the logical interpretation of research findings. The conclusion should be based on the information provided in the report and analysis of this information. Recommendations and suggestions for solving the problem are not to be included in the conclusion unless asked for. It is to be noted that recommendations and conclusions are different from each other.
Conclusion is essentially interpretation of findings whereas recommendations are suggestions for an appropriate action, or measures to be taken to rectify or solve problems.
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